What it Takes to Become an Oracle Database Administrator Research Paper

What it Takes to Become an Oracle Database Administrator - Research Paper Example It is evidently clear from the discussion that an Oracle database administrator needs to be a certified database administrator from some institute. A formal training course is the most suitable way for a database administrator to develop the knowledge of Oracle database administration. There are many oracle-training institutes present all over the world, which provide good training in data administration using Oracle. â€Å"An Oracle DBA is one who is professionally trained to work on several of Oracles software products, utilities, and tools†.  An Oracle database administrator needs to be experienced and proficient in handling large amounts of data. Oracle is one of the largest software companies, which designs software products that can be used to manage different business activities in an appropriate way. A database administrator must be skilled in using those software products. Another important skill that an Oracle database administrator must possess is the problem-solv ing skill. The administrator must be able to solve day-to-day problems related to management of different business processes. Apart from problem-solving skills, an Oracle database administrator must have a science and mathematics background because both of these subjects assist an administrator in using the Oracle software products in an effective way. The knowledge of science and mathematics is extremely important for the Oracle database administrators as it helps them deal with different software products effectively. A degree in computer science will also be very helpful for the people who want to become Oracle database administrators.

What factors led to the end of the Cold War Assignment

What factors led to the end of the Cold War - Assignment Example There are two major factors that were known to have led to the end of it all. One of the major factors was the leadership of the United States under President Ronald Reagan. It was, as many people say, President Ronald Reagans willpower and drive to rise up against the Soviet Union and make an effort in strengthening and improving the aptitude and skill of the US military. The Iron Curtain ultimately was left defeated, because they could no longer compete. Reagan added political, military, and financial weight on the Soviet Union, which was by that time were ill with serious commercial unproductivity. The USSR collapsed and fell in 1991. This left the United States as the leading military supremacy. Another major factor was the reforms attempted by Gorbachev. In 1987, he declared an program of economic reformation called perestroika, or restructuring. In addition, he instantaneously presented glasnost, or openness, which added liberty of the media and the transparency of national organizations. These efforts did not do much to resume the nation’s already lethargic economy. The changes devolved things to a certain degree. The Russian ruble was inconvertible. Perestroika led to the creation of new holdups in the Soviet financial system. By 1990, the administration had essentially lost its control over the dying economic

Market share of banglalink

Market share of banglalink 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Origin of the Report This report is the accomplishment of the class assignment program as required for the completion of the PGDBA TERM 2 course at College of Technology London.Project for the program was assigned by the institutions course teacher Carole Still 1.2 Objective of the Report Objective of this report is to give a general idea about the organization, business and operations of Banglalink, a mobile telecommunication company and to explore information about the market position, Marketing strategy and measures to improve the product and services of Banglalink. 1.3 Company Overview in Brief Banglalink was formed in 2005 by the Orascom Telecom Holding (OTH) under the registered name â€Å"Banglalink. Before that it was called Sheba Telecom Ltd. In February 10, 2005 the company changed its name to Banglalink, as a part of global think process. In Bangladesh Banglalink is a very fast growing telecommunication company. The major products and services of the company are listed below: General prepaid Ladis first prepaid Misti Kamala Upper Class Professional SME and SOHO Package Corporate post paid package. The company has customer care center in Dhaka and Chittagong. The corporate Head Office is located at 28, Gulshan, Land View Tower, Gulshan Circle-2, Dhaka. Banglalink is a subsidiary of Orascom Telecom Holding (OTH) which is a leading mobile telecommunications company operating in nine emerging markets in the Middle East, Africa and South Asia. Established in 1998, the company has acquired nine operating licenses in this region. With nearly 520 million people and an average mobile telephony penetration of only 5% falling under these licenses, Orascom Telecom has positioned itself as a leading telecommunications conglomerate in the emerging markets of this region. The organization has managed to build an amazing subscriber base of around 15 million in just a short span of six years by the end of 2005. 1.4 Methodology Both primary and secondary sources of information were used for this report. For the organization part secondary sources were the major source, whereas for the project part primary sources of data had used. Primary data were collected through personal interviews to target groups, which include Banglalink employees, distributors and customers. Open ended, close ended, structured questionnaire were used for collecting information at different stages of the report for different groups. For example, interviews with employees for organization part included open‑ended nonstructural questions, but for project part close‑ended structured questions were the majority. However, most of the questions were direct and non‑disguised in nature. Stratified random sampling method was used in the survey. Sample size was 75. Data analysis techniques used for the project part included graphical presentations, frequency distributions, percentage ranking, cross tabulations and normal distributions. Data was analyzed by MS Excel. 1.5 General Limitations Resource Constraints Efforts have been made to accomplish the project according to the objectives. But as the research team consisted of only one member, therefore, it was difficult to cover areas in detail. Moreover, there was constraint of other resources also. Time Limitation The type of study required a detail interview of customers and retailers. Difficulty was faced in getting access to this different group of people. Manpower Limitations This type of work requires extensive fieldwork. Due to lack of adequate manpower it was very difficult to work with large sample. Efforts have been made to accomplish the project in accordance with its objectives. But as the research team it consisted of only one member, therefore, there were difficulties to cover more details. 1.6 Report Preview The report is divided into two different parts. First part of the report is the organization part, which will give a general picture of the organization Banglalink as a whole, including the businesses it does. The other part is the project part, is assigned by the organization to fulfill the requirement of the internship as well as the need of the company. The topic is â€Å"Analysis of Marketing Strategy, Market Share and Future Action Plan of Banglalink. In this regard, four packages namely; Ladis First, Misti Kamala, Upper Class and SOHO-SME were considered. VIEW OF BANGLALINK 2.1 General Information The company aims to make a difference in the lives of the people. Its vision is to â€Å"understand peoples needs best and will create and deliver appropriate communication services to improve peoples life and make it easier†. Their mission is, therefore, to reduce the total cost of ownership of buying and using a mobile phone. Moreover, to achieve this vision, the company has established some values that it tries to instill in its employees. They want their employees, and the company as a result, to be straight forward, reliable, innovative and, above all, passionate. As Sheba Telecom, the worst performing network operator in the industry, the company had only 30,000 subscribers. To dispel this image, OTH had re-branded Sheba as Banglalinkâ„ ¢ in an attempt to give it a completely new image. Finally, they have successfully achieved their goal. With that kind of a reputation at its disposition, the Banglalinkâ„ ¢ management has placed one of the highest priorities on improving its network. In this respect, they have installed state-of-the-art equipment from Siemens and Huawei and brought in over 1,000 people, including experts, from 15 countries around the world to set up the required infrastructure. The system took a record of four months (less than half the normal time) to build. In 2005 alone, Orascom plans to invest $120 million, earmarking close to another $300 million for future investments. 2.2Vision Banglalink understands peoples needs best and will create and deliver appropriate communication services to improve peoples life and make it easier 2.3 Values They have the following four underlying organizational values. Straight Forward Reliable Innovative Passionate 2.4.1Marketing The Marketing team also consists of several teams, which includes PR Communications, VAS, Loyalty Retention and International Roaming. The teams all report to Omer Rashid, the Marketing Director. The Loyalty Retention team is responsible for the designing of the special offers launched from time to time in an attempt either to increase customer base or to increase ARPU. The VAS division is responsible for the continuously adding valuable services to provide a complete solution to existing customers, for example, for making conference calling ring tone/logo downloads possible. These two teams together are in charge of making the customers experience with our network more satisfying. PR Communication is responsible for designing and developing all promotional materials for the marketing of any new product/package and any other activities. They coordinate and work directly with the advertising agency and other vendors. While other companies have an entire department for promotions and branding, at Banglalinkâ„ ¢ this division, consisting of only a handful of people is responsible for this task. Although Banglalinkâ„ ¢ does not have any International Roaming facility now, this team is working on developing the service soon for post-paid subscribers. 2.4.2Human Resources Aside from recruiting and training employees, the HR department is also responsible for disseminating internal communication to all users and in the process of developing compensation packages for its employees, such as medical insurance under the group plan, life insurance and running several activities such as the Vaccination Program for all. Training activities are continuously taking place to develop and hone the skills knowledge of the personnel, such as the English Language MS Project Courses for selected employees and conducting a GSM Orientation session for all employees, especially the Sales, Marketing Customer Care Departments who have to deal with customers. 2.4.3Customer Care Rumana Reza, the only female director in the organization, is the head of the Customer Care department. This too is segmented, consisting of the Customer Care division itself, and then there is Care Line, Credit Management Unit and the Support Services Unit. They are responsible for handling customer queries and providing solutions to any problems faced by the subscribers. While the above departments are all located in the headquarters in Gulshan 2, the Customer Care people are divided between the head office and the Call Center (Star Tower) between Gulshan-1 and Gulshan-2. 2.4.4T Billing The IT Billing department, as is evident from the name, is in charge of all the hardware, software and program requirement of the other departments. They also generate the bills for the company subscribers (post-paid). 2.4.5Administration Apart from the Administration division, the department also consists of the Legal division and the Project Management Office. 2.4.6Finance The finance department is the largest department at the head office with an entire floor devoted to their needs. They consist of the Procurement Cash Management divisions among many others. 2.5 Strength, Weakness, Opportunity and Threats (SWOT) Analysis 2.5.1 Strengths Huge capital investment: As mentioned earlier, Orascom Telecom has great plans for Banglalinkâ„ ¢. Wherever OTH has gone, it has become the industry leader there or is on its way there. A possible explanation is that the organization kicks of its companies with a huge capital outlay to help get rid of or solve all the hitches. In 2005 alone, Orascom will invest $180 million, earmarking close to another $300 million for future investments. Expertise: As mentioned earlier, OTH had over 1000 people, including 15 experts, working on the infrastructure to get the company started in a record four months. These experts, with several years of experience in the telecom industry, now help in the day-to-day operation of the business. Tight control over sales process: Many people in the industry do not know the sales process, since its is dealt by their distributors and dealers. However, with the Direct Sales Booth, the people involved know the sales process intimately and are responsible for achieving the sales target and project implementation, thus giving the company a strong control over the process. 2.5.2 Weaknesses Network: The greatest weakness of Banglalinkâ„ ¢ and also the most widely criticized service is its network. While the reception is quite clear when the user is out of doors, once inside, the reception breaks up. The worst part is the company has entered a market where the industry leader has been reigning supreme for years now and people are bound to compare the leaders services with Banglalinks performance, even if it is fairly new to the market. People tend to forget that it had taken the leader more than three years since its start to provide its subscribers with a decent connection; hence it is with Grameens present performance that Banglalinkâ„ ¢ is compared and sure enough the latter does not fare well. Unorganized structure: OTH bought off Sheba (Pvt.) Limited last September and immediately started changing the structure of the loosing concern. They are constantly recruiting people, adding/deleting levels to the organogram. Thus, the environment is constantly chaotic, with many people not knowing who to contact or whom to report to and who is responsible for what. This takes away time and energy away from the selling activities. Inadequate human resources: While many people drop off their CVs at the office on a regular basis, finding sufficient numbers of people, with the correct qualifications, has become hard to find. Hence, a handful of people are doing the work of many leading to back log of work. Bureaucracy: The new management is trying to create a system where each individual is responsible and accountable for his duties. While it is a good idea, it has also created a bottleneck at the administrative financial level, where work gets stuck and stays stuck until all papers are properly signed and taken care of. 2.5.3 Opportunities Re-invent itself: As mentioned earlier, the company created a strong buzz when it entered the market. Previously an unknown entity, many people now know of the existence of Orascom Telecom. They have done their studies and know that OTH stands for success. Thus, the people are ready to see Banglalinkâ„ ¢ as a total different entity from its predecessor and are willing to give it another chance to re-invent its image in the market; not an issue to be taken lightly by the company. 2.5.4 Threats Price wars: While in the true sense it had been Banglalinkâ„ ¢ who started this price war with its M2M package, it has created a series of price cuts that many cannot afford. After eight years of high call charges, Grameen has finally decreased its rates. BTTB has also entered this battle with Teletalk Bangladesh Limited. With free TT incoming and outgoing, this is sure to become popular once it gains access to other operators networks. 3.0 INTRODUCTION OF PROJECT 3.1 Background of the Study Bangladesh has one of the lowest tele-density and the lowest telephone penetration rates in the world and even in the South Asia. According to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) report, the telecommunication revenue as a percentage of the GDP is also low in Bangladesh compared to the other regional countries. Among the SAARC countries per 100 inhabitants Maldives has the highest tele-density while Bangladesh has the lowest. There are five telephone operators in Bangladesh at the moment. Among them one is Government owned telephone operator: Bangladesh Telegraph and Telephone Board (BTTB) and the other four are privately owned companies namely Grameen Phone Ltd. Telecom Malaysia International Bangladesh (TMIB) Sheba Telecom Ltd and Pacific Bangladesh Telecom Ltd. (PBTL). Banglalink is a subsidiary of Orascom Telecom Holding (OTH) which is a leading mobile telecommunications company operating in nine emerging markets in the Middle East, Africa and South Asia. Established in 1998, the company has acquired nine operating licenses in this region. With nearly 520 million people and an average mobile telephony penetration of only 5% falling under these licenses, Orascom Telecom has positioned itself as a leading telecommunications conglomerate in the emerging markets of this region. The organization has managed to build an amazing subscriber base of around 15 million in just a short span of six years by the end of 2004. The present situation of market share, marketing strategy and action plan of Banglalink is the basis of this study. 3.2 Problem Statement The problem statement of the research is, â€Å"analysis of marketing strategy, market share, future prospect and action plan of banglalink† 3.3 Scope of the Study The research is limited within the some selected product of Banglalink and it is confined in Dhaka city only. There are number of product of existing telecom operators having varied features. This study covered some fast moving products namely; Ladies first, Misti Kamala, Upper Class and SOHO-SME packages of Banglalink. 3.4 Limitations of the Study The area of the research was too scattered to reach conveniently for gathering information within the specified time of the internship. However efforts were made to limit the area of observation through sampling method and experience judgment. Target populations of the research were not enough knowledgeable to understand and explain the required information needed from them. The studies were carried out on four products namely ladies fast, upper class, orange sweated and ipack. The researcher scope was not enough to amalgamate the whole strategy including all products. 3.5 Exploratory Research To formulate research objectives an extensive measure to unearth the real situation was under taken in the form of exploratory research. The secondary data analysis and the pilot survey i.e. the interviews with the company people, dealers, retailers and customers were the major types of exploratory research that were followed to reach the research objectives. This research is based on qualitative method. After formulating the problem statement, a detailed background study was conducted. This background survey helped to determine the specific objectives. 3.5.1 Checklist Keeping the problem statement in view and the preliminary research being an unstructured one, a number of questions in the form of checklist had been formulated. This checklist had been the main tool for asking relevant questions to the primary data sources to formulate the operational definition of the problem statement and precisely find out the area of study. Perception of customers about different operators of Bangladesh and the selected products of Banglalink were found from the checklist. 3.5.2 Exploratory Research Findings From of exploratory research the following points were discovered: Banglalink made a huge splash in the Bangladesh mobile industry on February 12, 2005. Banglalink made the mobile service affordable to the general people at a cost of only Tk 3400, which is the lowest in the market. About 12% of the market share is occcupied by the Banglalink. Presently, Banglalink is selling SIM at a price of Tk. 132 only, which is the lowest in the industry. The Banglalink connections also allow subscribers 125% credit limit where all other counterparts allow only 100%. It means that a client can talk upto 125% of his deposit in case of postpaid connection. 55% of the customers expressed that strength of network is the prime factor for choosing a particualr mobile operators among the existing competitors. About 78% of present customer were satisfied with the service of Banglalink. Higherst stisfaction rate found among the GP subscribers. More than 30% of the total customers willing to switch Banglalink from other mobile operators. About 10% of the customers expressed that there is an assoiation between higher sales and lower call charge of Banglalink. 3.3 Research Objectives After considering all the relevant aspects research objectives are formulated as under: Broad Objective Broad objective of the present study is to have an idea about the marketing strategy of mobile telecommunication industry of Bangladesh to survive in the competitive world, especially in the case of Banglalink. Specific Objectives Specific objectives of the study are as follows: To explore the market share and position of Banglalink in the mobile industry of Bangladesh. To explore the business level marketing strategy of Banglalink. To assess the perception of customers toward the product of services of Banglalink. To explore the strength and weakness of Banglalink in comparison of other mobile operators. To explore the growth potentiality of Banglalink To explore the future action plan of Banglalink to be the market leader in the telecommunication industry. 3.7 Literature Review Review of related literature in any research is a necessity in the sense that it provides an opportunity for reviewing the stock of knowledge and information to the proposed research. These knowledge and information give a guideline in designing the future research problem and validating the new findings. With this end in view, literature and research works in line with the present study, were searched in the relevant libraries, research institutes, offices and websites (internet). attractive packages to the customers. A significant change has been taken place in the mobile telecommunication sector after launching the Banglalink in the industry. At this moment, all operators are trying to keep their products at the top position. Present study will help to identify the strategic competitiveness and pitfalls of Banglalink and to find out the new horizon to be the market leader in the industry. 4.0 RECOMMENDATIONS AND PROPOSALS 4.2 Recommendations It was found that few operators in the market are trying to meet the growing demand of the city dwellers need for communication. For the high demand of the mobile phone there are many unmeet demand are waiting to acquire. Banglalink has to run to meet those demand of customers by providing the product and services at a affordable and minimal price. People are gradually becoming informed about the value of information and understand the fact that timely access to the right information slants the balance of market information in their favor. Governments of developing countries in general and Bangladesh in particular, have to address this issue of increased basic telecommunication connectivity to keep its population in the fast track of economy. Finally researcher has suggested (Proposed) few points to make telecommunication industry healthy: It is better to Promote competition and investment by private firms. The company has to ensure access to advanced services in rural and high-cost areas. It has to ensure access to advanced services for schools and libraries also. Provide and promote education of what telecommunications and information services can do and how to use them. Banglalink has a threat of price war from its competitors. In fact, mobile telecommunication industry has tremendous competition. All operators are coming up with different attractive products and services. So, it has to consider the following point to be a market leader in future: Strengthening the network system. Expand the coverage as soon as possible. Launch less product rather than multiple products at tie. Add value to particular product. Reduce the call charge. Tariff should be user-friendly and comprehensive. Billing system should be improved. Improve the standard of advertisement. Advertisement should be more appealing. Spend money wisely to minimize the cost which leads to maximize the profit. 4.3 Conclusion With respect to the identification of the market position of Banglalink from the above study it can conclude that Banglalink possesses about 12% of the market share in the telecommunication industry. It was found from the study that 37% GP subscribers want to change because of call charge, 24% GP subscribers want to change for TT connection, 13% GP subscribers want to change for product features. 37% Aktel subscribers reason to change is network coverage, 26% respondents change for call charge, 21% respondents change for product features and rest respondents changes for TT, billing system etc. A large number of CityCell subscribers like 61% subscribers want to change for network coverage, 22% CityCell subscribers change for call charge, rest for other reasons. 71% Banglalink subscribers reason to change is network coverage, 8% Banglalink subscribers change for call charges Bibliography Books: Malhotra, Naresh K. Marketing Reseach, 5th Edition, Prentice-hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi, 2000 Kotler PhilipChase, Marketing Management, Millennium Edition, Prentice-hall of India Private Limited, New Delhi, 2000 Lesikar, Ramond V. Flatley, Marie E. Basic Business Communication: Skills for Empowering the Internet Generation, 10th Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Irwin, 2006-2007. Fred R. David. â€Å"Strategic Management†, 10th Edition, Prentice Hall of India (PHI) Internet Resources: www.banglalink.com

Chinese Prostitution :: essays research papers

In 1850, only 7 Chinese women were in San Francisco compared to the 4,018 Chinese men. These lows numbers could’ve been because Chinese men were afraid to bring their wives and raise families in a place full of racial violence. The growing anti-Chinese sentiment and few labor opportunities reduced the chances for entry of Chinese women. The few women in San Francisco’s Chinatown basically turned Chinatown into a bachelor’s society. Many men went to brothel houses to release their sexual tensions, thus increasing the demands and values of prostitution. Prostitution in Chinatown increased, and in 1870, 61 percent of the 3536 Chinese women in California as prostitutes (Takaki, 1998). By 1879, seventy-one percent of Chinese women in San Francisco were prostitutes. However, the increased amount of Chinese women becoming a prostitute was not by choice. Immigrant women who became prostitutes, such as Wong Ah So, came to America on promises of marriage made by men only to be forced or tricked into prostitution. Chan's book, "Asian Americas: An Interpretive History", was able to shed some light as to why so few Chinese women were able to enter the U.S. From the mid-19th century to the early 20th century, Chinese women were only allowed to enter the U.S. as the wives and daughters of merchants or U.S. citizens. Several acts, such as the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act and the Page Law, were passed in an attempt to stop the immigration of Chinese because many anti-Chinese individuals assumed that all Chinese women were prostitutes. As Chan states in her book, the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act suspended the entry of Chinese laborers for ten years but exempted merchants, students and teachers, diplomats, and travelers from its provisions (Chan, 54). Under the 1882 Chinese Exclusion Act, only women who were native-born, married or born overseas to merchants in the U.S. could immigrate, thus resulting in an average of 108 Chinese immigrant women in 1882. The Page Law of 1875, which "forbid the entry of Chinese, Japanese, and Mongolian contract laborers, women for the purpose of prostitution, and felons" was so strictly enforced that legitimate wives had trouble entering America (Chan, 54). Yung argues that in order for Chinese women to enter the country, they had to prove that they were "moral" women. "Bound feet became a moral standard for Chinese women at the checkpoint" (Yung, Judith). This standard, however, didn't apply to all women.

Investigating motion using video processing software Essay

We switched on the laptop and connected the web cam into the USB. Once this was done we made sure that the web cam was working correctly and as soon as this watched checked we began to set up the practical part of the experiment. We then pressed record on the web cam using the software VISILOG and recorded the ball being thrown in the air next to a vertical ruler (one metre). Once this had been done we stopped the recording and the replayed the video and once we were happy, using the software, we recorded the position of the ball frame by frame. Below are the results for the first part of the experiment: Results: Time (s) Height (m) Speed (m/s) Acceleration (m/s2)  We can then draw a graph using the results and the first graph I have drawn (graph one) is of height of squash ball against time taken. Therefore, as we can see from the graph if a tangent is drawn we can calculate the gradient. The gradient of both sides of the parabola graph is shown on graph one. From the graph we can that as the squash ball is thrown the height of it increases as time increases and as it reaches its peak the ball speed is expected to decrease due to forces acting on (gravity) and therefore the ball drops down again. The gradient of the graph also calculates the speed (which can be seen of the graph) of the ball because of the formula: Distance = Speed   Time therefore Speed = Distance / Time From these results a second graph of speed against time can also be made, which is graph two. Again from this graph we can draw tangents and then work out the gradient. Using the gradient we can also work out the acceleration due to the formula: Acceleration = change in speed / change in time Therefore acceleration = gradient. Part Two Method: We used the same equipment for the second stage of the experiment but instead of recording the ball thrown in the air we recorded it as a projectile. To measure the displacement we used metre rules to measure horizontally as well as vertically. Below are the results from the experiment: Results: See next page! From this table we can draw out a lot of information and from this I have produced a graph of horizontal displacement and vertical displacement (graph three). From the graph we can see that as horizontal displacement increases so does vertical displacement until its peak of 0. 34 m. once the squash ball reaches this height it begins to fall back down due forces acting on it. After the vertical height reaches its peak it starts to decrease but the horizontal displacement continues to increase. From the graph we can also calculate the gradient, which I have done and this can be seen on the graph. Part Three Method: We got a step ladder and to the top of it we attached a wooden beam to it using clamps. Then we got three springs and attached them together and once this was done we attached the springs to the wooden beam using string. We then added a mass to the springs and recorded the oscillations it did using the camera. Below are the results for this: Results: See next page! From the results (which is a rather long set of data) we can produce a graph and this graph is a sine wave. Within the wave, it can be seen that just about 4 oscillations have been made by the spring. The time taken for 1 oscillation is called the period T. In this case the period T for 1 oscillation is about 1. 31 seconds as shown on the graph. The number of oscillations per unit time is the frequency, f = 1 / T. Therefore, using the formula we can calculate the frequency of one oscillation, which is: f = 1 / T f = 1 / 1. 31 f = 0. 763358778 f = 0. 76 Hz Furthermore as the weights on the spring move about on a fixed point it means that the wave can be described as a single harmonic motion and the acceleration is proportional to its displacement (see graph four for more details) Conclusion: Therefore, in conclusion I have shown many things in this three part experiment. For each part, I have produced graphs and shown the results table that I have analysed as well. For the first part of the experiment we can see that from the graphs the squash balls speed increases as it let go from the hand and then as it reaches its peak it begins to lose its speed and comes down, which is also due to forces acting upon the graph. Part two of the experiment is similar in respects and the difference is that it was a projectile instead. And the third part shows the spring oscillating from a ladder when a weight is attached to it. For more on these look at the graphs I have produced and the analysis beneath each part of the experiment.

Manage Resistance to Change Proactively Essay

Register for this journal is available at http://www. emeraldinsight. com/researchregister The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at http://www. emeraldinsight. com/0262-1711. htm Managing diversity using a strategic planned change approach Earnest Friday Management in the College of Business Administration, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA, and Managing diversity 863 Received October 2002 Revised February 2003 Accepted February 2003 Shawnta S. Friday School of Business and Industry at Florida A&M University, Tallahassee, Florida, USA Keywords Diversity management, Strategic management, Change management Abstract Many organizations have implemented various types of initiatives within the last few decades in an effort to deal with diversity. A possible missing vinculum (link) between how an organization deals with diversity and its impact on the bottomline is a corporate diversity strategy that is executed using a planned change approach to systemically manage diversity. While many organizations have implemented a corporate diversity strategy, most have not used a â€Å"planned change-corporate diversity strategy†. The lack of a â€Å"planned change-corporate diversity strategy† is quite likely to inhibit managing diversity from becoming systemic to an organization’s culture and its way of doing business, thus tending to disallow the potential bene? ts of diversity to be maximized. Hence, this paper offers a framework for using a â€Å"planned change-corporate diversity strategy† to: progress along the â€Å"diversity continuum† starting with acknowledging to valuing, and ultimately to managing diversity; and systemically managing diversity using a eight-step â€Å"managing diversity process†. Introduction Over the past few decades, academicians, practitioners and organizational researchers have recognized that diversity is a phenomenon that has a wide array of affects within the workplace, and society in general (Koonce, 2001; Stark, 2001; Williams and O’Reilly, 1997). In this paper, diversity refers to any attribute that happens to be salient to an individual that makes him/her perceive that he/she is different from another individual (Williams and O’Reilly, 1997). Some widely accepted differentiating attributes include racioethnicity (which encompasses race and ethnicity), gender, nationality, religion, functional expertise, and age. Even though racioethnic and gender diversity tend to receive the majority of the attention in the organizational diversity literature (Stark, 2001; Williams and O’Reilly, 1997), this de? ition allows for the frameworks offered to be applied to any type of organizational diversity salient to members. Diversity programs have been implemented in many multinational organizations, primarily, in an effort to improve working relationships Journal of Management Development Vol. 22 No. 10, 2003 pp. 863-880 q MCB UP Limited 0262-1711 DOI 10. 1108/02621710310505467 JMD 22,10 864 between white males, whose relative numbers continue to decrease, and demographically different individuals, whose numbers continue to increase in the workplace (Friedman and DiTomaso, 1996). While many multinational organizations have a corporate diversity strategy, most have not implemented it using the suggested planned changed approach posited in this paper. Given the intensifying â€Å"war for talent† in today’s competitive, global business environment, it is imperative that the execution and evaluation of a corporate diversity strategy use a planned changed approach to not only acknowledge and value diversity, but to also systemically manage and inculcate diversity into an organization’s corporate culture. This type of approach can contribute immensely to an organization’s ability to use all of its human capital as a strategic means to gain and maintain a competitive advantage in today’s dynamic, global marketplace (Richard, 2000). It has been purported that if diversity can be effectively managed in an organization, some potential bene? ts to the organization include greater creativity and innovation, and improved decision-making (Cox, 1991). Conversely, if diversity is not managed effectively, some potential major costs to the organization include, at a minimum, breakdowns in communication, interpersonal con? ict, and higher turnover (Cox, 1991). While there may not be much empirical evidence to substantiate claims that effectively managed diversity directly leads to bottomline increases (Chatman et al. , 1998; Richard, 2000; Stark, 2001), there is real-world evidence (e. g. Coca-Cola, Denny’s, Publix, and Texaco settlements) to suggest that not effectively managing gender and racioethnic diversity has been, and can be, detrimental to organizations and their bottomlines. Thus, it is a logical extrapolation that an organization’s ability or inability to create a culture in which diversity is systemically acknowledged, valued, and effectively managed is more likely to determine the affects diversity will have on it’s bottomline. Many organizations have implemented various diversity initiatives as a part of their corporate diversity strategy (Koonce, 2001), but most have not used a planned change approach to strategically align their initiatives with their long-term objectives and strategic positioning. It is highly probable that this lack of planned strategic alignment contributes immensely to the purported ineffectiveness of many diversity initiatives (Stark, 2001). Consequently, an organization that seeks to maximize the potential bene? s of diversity should devise a â€Å"planned change-corporate diversity strategy† prior to implementing diversity initiatives. The purpose of the planned change-corporate diversity strategy is to align the organization’s diversity initiatives (designed to manage diversity) with the organization’s strategic goals, and ultimately make managing diversity an integral part of the organization’s culture. An aligned planned change-corporate diversity st rategy will contribute immensely to the long-term effectiveness of diversity initiatives aimed at better managing all of he organization’s human resources. This is especially signi? cant for organizations with a highly diversi? ed workforce. With a planned change-corporate diversity strategy, diversity initiatives are aligned with organizational policies, procedures, and systems. Such alignment is desired to systemically reinforce an organizational culture that encourages the effective management of all employees in order to garner diversity’s purported bene? ts, including the end goal of increasing the bottomline. Thus, frameworks are presented for using a planned change-corporate diversity strategy to: advance from the initial passive states of acknowledging and valuing diversity to the ? nal active state of managing diversity on the â€Å"diversity continuum†; and systemically manage diversity using the speci? c eight-step â€Å"managing diversity process†. The diversity continuum and the planned change approach Valuing diversity and managing diversity as distinct phenomena Over the last few decades, a myriad of articles have been written on the subjects of valuing diversity and managing diversity (Wanguri, 1996). In some cases, valuing diversity and managing diversity have been considered, and sometimes used, interchangeable when, in fact, they are two different phenomena (Jenner, 1994). By the very nature of their de? nitions, valuing and managing diversity are distinctly different. Valuing refers to the relative worth, importance, or signi? cance of something, whereas managing refers to taking charge or coordinating and supervising situations. Given these de? nitions, valuing diversity should be considered a more passive phenomenon, where importance or signi? ance is given to individuals’ differences, which does not automatically lead to visible actions or reactions on the part of the individuals valuing the diversity or differences. Managing diversity, on the other hand, should be considered an active phenomenon, which involves supervising or coordinating and directing the diversity or differences individuals bring to the organization to ensure the organization’s strategic go als are being fully and effectively met. In other words, it refers to successfully organizing the organizational inputs of individuals with diverse backgrounds. This de? nition is consistent with the managing diversity de? nition given by Thomas’ (1991): â€Å"a ‘way of thinking’ toward the objective of creating an environment that will enable all employees to reach their full potential in pursuit of organizational objectives†. The diversity continuum As a result of the confusion in the literature between the two phenomena, valuing diversity and managing diversity, it is not dif? cult to understand why consensus does not exist on the claims of bottomline bene? s as a result of the attempts organizations have made to value and/or manage diversity. In addition to the confusion, lack of consensus could also be a function of the Managing diversity 865 JMD 22,10 866 complexity of the diversity concept in the organizational context. Given the complexity of diversity within an organizational setting, it is possible that perceiving it in terms of a set of three elements that delineates what to do with diversity may serve t o simplify or clarify the confusion in the diversity literature. Therefore, a diversity continuum is offered to guide researchers and practitioners in moving from the more passive states of acknowledging diversity and valuing diversity, on through to the more active state of managing diversity. As individuals ? nd themselves in situations with diverse individuals, they are likely to take one of two courses of action: avoid dealing with the diversity, or recognize that the diversity exists. In the case where individuals avoid diversity, they do not face the fact that diversity is an issue. It is likely that these individuals do not accept the idea that they are likely to be biased in their interactions with others that they perceive to be different from themselves. Although avoiding diversity is viewed as a possible response to diversity, it is not included in the diversity continuum. The diversity continuum is based on the assumption that individuals take the second course of action and recognize diversity. Once diversity is recognized, as previously stated, the diversity continuum serves as a framework to delineate the three potential states of dealing with diversity: acknowledging, valuing, and managing diversity. The three sequential components of the diversity continuum are: acknowledging diversity; valuing diversity; and managing diversity (see Figure 1). Acknowledging diversity, the ? rst component, refers to recognizing the existence of diversity or the individual differences individuals bring with them to a particular setting. In order for individuals to truly acknowledge diversity, they must be exposed to it, experience it, acquire knowledge about it, and they must develop an understanding of diversity. The second component of the diversity continuum is valuing diversity. Valuing diversity, as de? ed above, refers to the signi? cance or importance being given to the diversity or differences individuals bring with them to a particular setting. Having an appreciation for, as well as respect for, the differences that diverse individuals bring with them to the work setting can lead to the last component. The last component of the diversity continuum is managing diversity. As stated above, m anaging diversity refers to the planning, organizing, leading of individuals with differences or diversity in a particular setting, such that their inputs are used to accomplish the organization’s strategic goals. Even in racioethnically homogeneous organizational settings, organizations make large investments to ensure an appropriate organizational culture is fostered. An appropriate organizational culture is desirous, such that individuals are systemically managed to perform and accomplish its goals, not just hoping that their performance will somehow lead to the accomplishment of the organizations’ desired goals. Thus, similar systemic efforts are necessary in order to manage Managing diversity 867 Figure 1. The strategic management process emographically diverse individuals such that the organization can gain the maximum synergistic bene? ts from their contributions as well. The planned change approach Rather than being reactive and waiting for a â€Å"diversity crisis† to take place before a change is made (i. e. Coca-Cola, Denny’s, Publix, and Texaco settlements), an organization should be proactive in systemically Managing Diversity. Hence, an organization and its m embers should make the necessary changes to proactively move from just settling for the ? rst stage of acknowledging diversity to the ? al stage of managing diversity. The Lewin-Schein change model is offered as the theoretical framework to proactively and systemically facilitate the management of diversity in organizations. This planned change model is based on the premise that the organizational forces propelling change must subdue the forces resisting change for highly effective change to occur. Therefore, it is posited in this paper that the Lewin-Schein change model is a framework that can assist organizations and individuals in moving through the sequential elements of the diversity continuum. It is also posited that this model can be applicable at JMD 22,10 868 both the organizational and individual level for managing diversity. While Allen and Montgomery (2001) offered the Lewin-Schein change model as a framework for creating diversity, the model is offered in this paper as a framework for Managing Diversity. The Lewin-Schein change model involves three stages: unfreezing, change (moving), and refreezing (Lewin, 1951; Schein, 1992). For the organization or individual to experience successful change, the three stages need to be addressed in succession. Unfreezing using a planned change-corporate diversity strategy In the unfreezing stage, the organization’s or individual’s present culture (which includes perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors) toward diversity, needs to be unfrozen. This means there needs to be enough motivation within the organization or individual to want to change from its present state to the new desired state. Thus, in moving from one end of the diversity continuum to the other end, with managing diversity being the desired outcome, management must desire that its members move from just acknowledging and valuing diversity to managing diversity. As presented previously, managing diversity refers to systemically organizing and directing the inputs of all organizational members (including diverse individuals) to ensure the organization’s strategic goals are met. Likewise, the individual must want to move from just acknowledging and/or valuing diversity to the ? nal phase of managing diversity. At the individual level, this movement involves governing one’s actions toward diverse individuals in a way that allows for healthy, productive interaction with those diverse others. Therefore, to unfreeze the organization’s culture and its members’ current state of mind toward diversity, a planned change-corporate diversity strategy should be devised and aligned with the organization’s strategic positioning to reduce the forces that are striving to maintain the status quo (Dobbs, 1998). A ? rm’s strategic positioning The strategic management process is employed by many organizations in order to distinguish themselves from their competitors in the marketplace (David, 2001; Porter, 1985; Steiner, 1997). Although there are several schools of thought in the strategic management ? ld, the generally accepted components of the strategic management process are: strategy formulation, strategy implementation, and strategy evaluation as explained in Figure 2 (David, 2001; Hill and Jones, 1998). Strategy formulation is comprised of developing or reviewing the organization’s mission, vision, and long-term goals; conducting internal and exte rnal assessments to identify the organization’s strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT); setting selection criteria and selecting the strategies that will afford the organization the best strategic positioning relative to its competitors (David, 2001; Steiner, 1997). Strategy implementation entails allocating the appropriate resources to ensure the Managing diversity 869 Figure 2. The three levels of organizational strategy selected strategies are properly executed (David, 2001; Steiner, 1997). Strategy evaluation involves setting control processes to continuously review, evaluate, and provide feedback concerning the implemented strategies to determine if the desired results are being accomplished, such that corrective measures may be taken if warranted (Hill and Jones, 1998; Steiner, 1997). As illustrated in Figure 3, there are usually three levels of strategy associated with large-scale organizations. The corporate level strategy de? nes the organization’s purpose and the lines of businesses in which it plans to operate, thereby providing the overarching direction for the organization. If an organization only operates in one line of business, its corporate level strategy and business level strategy are effectively one in the same (David, 2001; Hill and Jones, 1998). A business level strategy is the blueprint that should enable an organization to leverage its resources in order to differentiate itself from the competition within a particular line of business (David, 2001; Hill and Jones, 1998). The functional-level strategies serve to support the organization’s business-level strategy by providing direction for the appropriate short-term activities required by each functional area to meet the goals established in the business-level strategy (David, 2001; Hill and Jones, 1998). Consequently, having properly aligned corporate, business, and functional level strategies aid an organization in its efforts to accomplish its goals, thereby strategically positioning itself to successfully compete within the marketplace (David, 2001; Hill and Jones, 1998; Porter, 1985). Combining highly differentiated and ef? cient human capital with clearly delineated corporate, business, and functional level strategies can prove to be a competitive advantage for an organization (Barney, 1991, 1997; Wright et al. , 1995). An organization must view strategies for developing and managing its employees JMD 22,10 870 Figure 3. Alignment between corporate strategy and planned change-corporate diversity strategy as a part of its overarching corporate level strategy if it desires to have highly differentiated and ef? ient human capital in today’s competitive, global environment. Therefore, one argument of this paper is that any organization seeking to realize the maximum bene? t from having a diversi? ed workforce should have a planned change-corporate diversity strategy that is aligned with the organization’s overall strategic positioning. Developing a planned change-corporate diversity strategy The organization â€Å"wishing to create an environment that enables all employees to reach their full potential will have to . . . change organizational practices as necessary† (Thomas, 1991). However, prior to changing any organizational practice, a comprehensive strategy for how to accomplish that change should be devised based on an in-depth understanding of relevant organizational dynamics (i. e. culture, structure, ? nancial position, strategic initiatives, etc). Theoretically, a strategy should precede the structure of an organization. Consequently, a planned change-corporate diversity strategy should be devised to align with the organization’s corporate strategy before structuring diversity initiatives (as illustrated in Figure 4), and reinforced using a planned change approach. Organizations that have elevated their diversity strategist to executive-level management are likely to have an overarching corporate diversity strategy in place. But, it is not as likely that the diversity strategist is using a corporate-wide planned change approach to systemically reinforce the proposed changes in the corporate diversity strategy throughout all of the Managing diversity 871 Figure 4. The diversity continuum organization’s policies, procedures, and systems. Regardless of whether an organization has a corporate diversity strategy or not, it may be necessary to superimpose a planned change-corporate diversity strategy over existing disjointed diversity strategies and initiatives. At the onset of such an endeavor or superimposition, corporate diversity mission statement, vision, and goals must be formulated to articulate the purpose diversity initiatives will serve within the organization and the desired outcomes to be achieved from such initiatives. The delineated desired outcome should be designed to systemically manage diversity. Conducting internal and external assessments are essential steps in devising a planned change-corporate diversity strategy. An internal assessment will allow the diversity strategist to decide how to position diversity strategies and initiatives within the organization’s structure, and to align them with all of the organization’s policies, procedures, and systems. To assess the external environment, the diversity strategist should use environmental scanning tools to extract best practices based on benchmarked diversity strategies and initiatives at other leading organizations. Through the internal assessment, the diversity strategist should become intimately familiar with the organization’s values, vision, mission, strategies, goals, and initiatives, all of which constitute a sound basis for understanding the organization’s culture, policies, procedures, systems, and overall strategic positioning. The diversity strategist must become equally familiar with the bene? ts and shortfalls of various diversity initiatives. The strategist must conduct an analysis to determine the most appropriate linkages between the organization’s overall strategic positioning, policies, procedures, systems, and its diversity initiatives. Before proceeding, the diversity strategist must recognize and effectively articulate a clear strategic ? t and alignment amongst the organization’s overall strategic positioning, policies, procedures, systems, JMD 22,10 872 and diversity. Both strategic ? t and strategic alignment are necessary to strengthen the business case for allocating resources to support the planned change-corporate diversity strategy. In order to realize the maximum bene? ts from diversity, the planned change-corporate diversity strategy needs to be properly executed, evaluated and refrozen to ensure that the stated goals are being met, and that the organization’s culture and members are moving toward and sustaining the desired state of systemically managing diversity. Moving to systemically managing diversity Once the present state is unfrozen, the move that will allow the organization’s culture and members to advance to the desired state should be put in place. In this case, the move is to culturally reengineer the organization and its members to the true state of managing diversity by implementing the managing diversity process. The social learning theory (Bandura, 1977) is offered as the theoretical framework for the managing diversity process. It has also been offered as the theoretical framework for developing training programs in the cross-cultural and expatriate literature (Black and Mendenhall, 1989; Harrison, 1994). There are four major tenets of social learning theory: motivation, attention, retention, and reproduction (Bandura, 1977). These tenets are re? ected in the eight steps of the managing diversity process. In an effort to truly manage diversity, a change in the attitudes and behaviors of individuals, and in organizations’ systemic and institutional ways of doing business is required. Therefore, it is posited that utilizing the tenets of social learning theory can aid in the acquisition of the learning that is necessary for organizations to maximize the inputs of all of its diverse members. The planned change-corporate diversity strategy serves as the motivation for the learning of new behaviors and attitudes. Hence, once the planned change-corporate diversity strategy is articulated, the move through the eight steps of the managing diversity process should be instituted to assist individuals and organizations in culturally reengineering and moving to the desired state of managing diversity. The eight sequential steps of the managing diversity process include: (1) exposure; (2) experience; (3) knowledge; (4) understanding; (5) appreciate; (6) respect; (7) modify attitudes and behavior; and (8) healthy interaction. All of these are undergirded by tolerance (see Figure 5). The acknowledging diversity component of the diversity continuum is composed of steps (1)-(4), and they re? ect the â€Å"attention tenet† of social learning theory. The valuing diversity component of the diversity continuum is comprised of steps (5) and (6), and is re? ective of the â€Å"retention tenet† of social learning theory. Steps (7) and (8) constitute the managing diversity component of the diversity continuum and the â€Å"reproduction tenet† of social learning theory. The movement through each of the eight steps requires individuals to progressively develop appropriate skills to enable them to manage how they deal with individuals whom they consider different from themselves. Therefore, executing the eight steps in the managing diversity process serve as the necessary movement required to progress from acknowledging and valuing diversity to managing diversity. The true movement through the eight steps from acknowledging diversity to managing diversity is a paradigm shift, in that it entails a change in the treatment of diverse individuals (Fitzpatrick, 1997). Managing diversity 873 Diversity training In order for an organization to realize the potential bene? ts that can be afforded by employing diverse individuals, there needs to be a paradigm shift in which the inputs of diverse individuals are systemically managed within an organization to enable the successful accomplishment of its strategic goals. Training of individuals is viewed as a necessary tool to facilitate the organization in achieving its goals. Diversity training should be viewed no differently than any other type of training in which an organization invests. Therefore, it should also be viewed as a necessary tool to manage members’ behaviors and their ability to work productively with diverse individuals. After canvassing the literature, it has been noted that most diversity training programs merely raise individuals’ awareness of or sensitivity to diversity (Grubb, 1995; Jenner, 1994). Some few diversity training programs go as far as attempting to change individuals’ perceptions of diversity and how they communicate with people different from themselves (Grubb, 1995). However, these programs tend to be offered to only select employees, and they tend to be short in duration, ranging from a one-hour session to a series of one-day sessions several times a year (Koonce, 2001). The major drawbacks to most existing diversity training programs are that: . they do not build skills to facilitate individuals’ ability to actually manage their interactions with individuals different from themselves; . they are not rigorous nor time-intensive enough to create a paradigm shift in individuals’ treatment toward individuals different from themselves; and JMD 22,10 874 Figure 5. The continuous managing diversity process . there are no enduring reinforcement mechanisms embedded in the organization’s culture to ensure all individuals’ inputs are successfully managed to met the organization’s strategic goals. Managing diversity As a result, most (if not all) existing diversity programs have not been successful in creating enduring change in the way individuals interact with individuals different from themselves, nor have they been successful in changing their organization’s culture to one that systemically manages diversity. In order to create enduring change in individuals and the organization’s culture, members of the organization at all levels need to participate in diversity training that encapsulates the comprehensive managing diversity process. The outcomes that should be expected from participation include, but are not limited to, skill building in the following areas: the ability to clearly articulate their ideas and feelings; con? ict management skills; effective giving and receiving of feedback; effective listening; group observation skills; and group decision-making skills, all of which will facilitate modi? d attitudes and behaviors, and healthy interaction with diverse individuals. Individuals have to come to grips with their feelings, thoughts, attitudes, and behaviors toward diversity and others with whom they are different. In the ? rst step of Exposure, individuals provide public notice of where they are at that point. They do this by: laying open who they are; divulging where the y are; unmasking themselves; and receiving others’ culture. Step (2), experience, involves gathering information through personal involvement, encountering, seeing ? rst-hand, and living through events. In the third step of Knowledge, individuals become well informed, thus able to be conversant because they become familiar or acquainted with the culture of others. Knowledge serves as the basis for step (4), understanding. Because of their grasp of cultural realities, individuals are able to comprehend (understanding) relevant cultural dynamics, which leads them to be sensitive, and enables them to share unique insights and perceptions. In step (5), appreciate, individuals’ acceptance of the worth of a person’s culture and values makes it easier for them to welcome and â€Å"justly† estimate diverse individuals. Resultantly, individuals are able to respect (step (6)) diverse individuals; thus, they are able to pay attention, pay deference, and pay tribute to the values, worth, and culture of diverse others, as well as give personal consideration to the diverse individuals. Successful movement through the ? rst six steps, along with tolerance underpinning each step, should lead to modi? cations in individuals’ attitudes and behaviors toward diverse individuals, which is step (7), modify attitudes and behaviors. This change in attitudes and behaviors, again, along with tolerance should lead to healthy interaction (step (8)) with and amongst diverse individuals. Step (8) is a function of continuous acceptance and execution of steps (1)-(7). Therefore, this is a ? uid (not static) process that must be recognized for its ever-changing and 875 JMD 22,10 876 evolving nature. The requirements for successful execution of the managing diversity process are strenuous and time intensive because it requires individuals to modify their attitudes and behaviors. Thus, they must modify the way they interact with individuals different from themselves, and not just expect that they either avoid, acknowledge, or value those individuals that are different. Given that all individuals in today’s global business environment are likely to encounter others that are different from themselves on a frequent basis, the managing diversity process should be viewed as analogous to the open systems approach – it is a continuous process that maintains a constant reciprocal relationship with the environment. Refreezing the systemic management of diversity Successful movement through the managing diversity process requires individuals to change. Resistance to change is inherent in any change process, and it will be no different in this process (Harrison, 1994). Therefore, the managing diversity process is a ? uid, continuous process that needs to be systematically reinforced and embedded in the organization’s culture and individuals’ interactions, such that the organization’s culture and its members do not revert back to just acknowledging or valuing diversity. Hence, refreezing the desired state of managing diversity requires reinforcing the new perceptions, attitudes, and behaviors with emphasis on the modi? ed behaviors and healthy interactions individuals have adopted as a result of going through the managing diversity process. In order for individuals and organizations not to revert back to their previous states, the new desired state must go through the refreezing stage to be institutionalized. This should be accomplished through systemic, on-going training and daily interactions at the individual level, and through revised policies, procedures, and systems at the organizational level. At the individual level, the systemic, on-going training should not be just periodic training that merely exposes individuals to diversity. A great deal of time is necessary to cement these newly adopted attitudes, behaviors, and skills for healthy interaction. This kind of cementation is required for these newly acquired attitudes, behaviors, and skills to become totally embedded in the individuals’ natural way of interacting with diverse individuals. The systemic, on-going training needs to be skill-based and experiential in nature to promote long-term changes in the way individuals work with individuals different from themselves. This type of reinforcement at the individual level will contribute to the cultural reengineering that also must take place at the organizational level. To reinforce the desired state of managing diversity at the organizational level, revised recruiting, appraisal, development, and reward systems, as well as an enforceable diversity policy need to be implemented (Allen and Montgomery, 2001; Hemphill and Haines, 1998; Miller, 1998). The revised policies, procedures, and recruiting, appraisal, development, and reward systems need to re? ct the organization’s position on how the inputs of diverse individuals will be managed, such that their contributions fully aid the organization in meeting its strategic goals. A written, enforceable diversity policy, stating the systemic action steps and behaviors expected by all employees is a must as it relates to effectively managing the organizational inputs of all individuals. Everyone’s inputs should be effectively managed to contri bute to the achievement of the organization’s strategic goals. The revised policies, procedures, and systems should also align with the planned change-corporate diversity strategy. Given the resources and time required to revise and initiate implementation of the revised organizational policies, procedures, and systems, individuals are likely to resist these changes initially. Therefore, it is quite likely to be a dif? cult and time-consuming process to make the appropriate and necessary revisions to the organization’s policies, procedures, and systems. This is an essential and critical step necessary to ensure the organization and its members do not revert back to their previous attitudinal and behavioral states. It is paramount that revised policies, procedures, systems, and planned change-corporate diversity strategy are clearly communicated to all members of the organization to ensure that it can be appropriately recognized, executed, evaluated, and reinforced. To reinforce this cultural reengineering effort, management needs to initiate and actively participate in the refreezing stage, the same as they must genuinely participate at the unfreezing and moving stages. Potential limitations As with any theoretical model, there are limitations. One potential limitation of this notional model is that no matter how well it is implemented, there are likely to be some individuals whose attitudes may never change or they may continue to consciously or unconsciously show favoritism toward those whom they consider to be similar to themselves (Gilbert and Ivancevich, 2000; Miller, 1998). Another potential limitation is that subtle forms of biases against diverse individuals may still exist informally within the organization and/or outside of the work environment; thus, highly impacting individuals within the organization. Backlash is also a potential limitation; members of the majority are likely to perceived that they are being excluded at the expense of including diverse individuals (Hemphill and Haines, 1998). Additionally, if the training initiated to implement the managing diversity process is perceived as a bad experience, the organization’s leadership may abandon the initial implementation, hence dooming all future diversity efforts. However, by using the suggested planned change approach along with well enforced diversity policies and disciplinary procedures for violations of the diversity policy, it is more likely that individuals’ behaviors can be altered to be more tolerant of others whom they consider to be Managing diversity 877 JMD 22,10 different (Gilbert and Ivancevich, 2000). This will allow the talents, skills, and abilities of all individuals in the work setting to be used to meet organizational objectives. Conclusion Given that individuals are less willing to leave their differences outside the doors of the workplace (Thomas, 1991), an organization’s ability to systemically manage diversity will become more important, in years yet to come, if it wants to ensure its ability to compete successfully in the global marketplace. This paper suggests that, ? rst, a planned change approach should be used to systemically manage diversity, by developing and implementing a planned change-corporate diversity strategy. Second, organizations should execute their cultural reengineering efforts to move individuals and the organizational culture along the diversity continuum from the states of acknowledging and valuing diversity to the desired state of managing diversity. Movement to the desired state of managing diversity can be achieved by using the managing diversity process. It is also suggested that the organization needs to provide on-going training, and needs to institute new policies and procedures. Additionally, it must engage in appropriately different recruiting, appraisal, development, and reward systems that systemically reinforce the cultural reengineering of moving to the state of managing diversity. These new undertakings will ensure that the newly reengineered culture of managing diversity is inculcated into the organization’s culture, and its way of conducting business domestically and abroad. By adopting and executing the frameworks offered in this paper for ystemically managing diversity through a strategic planned change approach, managers will have created an organizational environment where they will be able to enjoy healthy, innovative, and productive interactions amongst diverse members of the organization. The following is a list of other potential bene? ts that may be derived from using the offered frameworks: . in general, individuals will develop an increased knowledge of and appreciation for other cultures; . individuals will learn to value and respect the cultural norms, behaviors, and attitudes of others; . here is likely to be a greater receptivity to necessary organizational changes; . there is likely to be a lessening of workplace anxieties; . a reduction in organizational con? ict; . a more pleasant work environment; and . increased performance and productivity. 878 In conclusion, the proactive management of diverse human resources will aid organizations in gaining and sustaining a competitive advantage in today’s dynamic global marketplace.

Business Research Paper Topics

Business Research Paper Topics Business research papers are a common characteristic of any business courses. Writing a research paper based on a business topic is very easy, however most students normally have a difficult time coming up with the kind of papers that can earn them top grades. The secret to writing a good business paper is good preparation in terms of research. Just like any other research papers, business essays need to be well researched for them to be of high standards. The first thing that you will need to research on is the topic. You cannot write a good business paper if you do not have a good topic. When you do your research well, you will be able to come up with a good topic for your paper. Business research paper topics come in a variety of subjects. The kind of topic that you choose for your paper should reflect the subject area of your interest. A good business research paper topic should get the attention of your reader from the word go. This means that the topic must be written creatively using correct grammar. The topic also needs to be straight to the point. Make sure that the topic is specific and original. To be able to choose a good topic for your paper, you have to understand your subject area quite well. Doing some thorough research will enable you to get a specific topic which you are comfortable writing about. If you do not find research material from your local library, the internet is a god place to look for business research paper topics and ideas. 5 most popular business research paper topics: How has the economic crisis affected the microfinance industry? How is farming important to the economy? What can organizations do to improve employee competence? Does a nation’s budgetary allocation affect its economic performance? How does illiteracy contribute to economic stagnation?

The Biological Importance of Water Essay

The Biological Importance of Water Essay The Biological Importance of Water Essay The Biological Importance of Water Water is essential to us humans and all other living organisms, without it life on Earth would not exist. Water as a molecule is quite peculiar and it is its unusual properties that give it the ability to sustain life. Water has the molecular formula of H2O, this means that there are two Hydrogen atoms (H) and one oxygen atom (O). The water molecules layout could be described as a Mickey Mouse head; the face being the oxygen molecule and the ears being the hydrogen molecules. Water is a dipolar molecule this means that one end is slightly positively charged (the hydrogen) and the other is slightly negatively charged (the oxygen), because of the dipolar charges water molecules attract each other, and this is called cohesion. Cohesion is when the oxygen atom of one water molecule forms a hydrogen bond with the hydrogen atom of another water molecule (opposite charges attract), cohesion can also occur between other molecules of similar substances. Water molecules on the surface of the water form hydrogen bonds with the surrounding water molecules but not with the molecules in the air, the unequal distribution of bonds enables the water to form a force called surface tension, this causes the water to form a sort of tough ‘skin’. This is important because it keeps the water as a singular body, protecting itself from disruption. It can also be important for insects, such as pond skaters, and other life forms, such as birds, because it enables them to sit on the surface of the water. Water can also form hydrogen bonds with polar substances; this is why water feels ‘wet’. The water molecules actually stick to other molecules with hydrogen bonds, causing a thin layer of water to form on the surface of a material, but because of the cohesion force the water never forms a flat layer. The molecules stick to each other to form circular drops called ‘droplets’. When oil is mixed with water, because of it non-polar properties it does not dissolve, it simply sits on the surface in a droplet, it does this because the oil is cohesive to itself and less dense than water. These bonds are weak and so the water can easily move and break away from the material, this intermolecular bonding is known as adhesion. This ‘sticky’ property enables water to move, unbroken, up the xylem tissue of plants up to the leaves to be used in photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is a process that plants us to turn water and carbon dioxide into glucose and oxygen ( 6H2O + 6CO2 - C6H12O6 + 6O2). This process is essential for the plants to have energy and for the production of oxygen, which is essential for other organisms in allowing them to perform the process of respiration. Water is also essential for other biochemical reactions such as peptide bonding for protein formation, without proteins life would not exist. Proteins perform the majority of functions within a living organism, for example; catalyzing metabolic reactions, responding to stimuli, replicating DNA and transporting molecules from one location to another. Water forms the peptide bonds that hold the amino acids together to form proteins such as enzymes. Enzymes are biological catalysts, they depend on water to reach their substrates and bind to them. There is no enzymatic activity without water. In addition, enzymes depend on sufficient pH interval to work and the pH is a consequence of the delivery of hydrogen cations (H+) and hydroxyl anions (OH-) by acids and bases in water solution. Water is also essential in living organisms because it is a universal solvent, this means that the majority of solutes (polar and ionic substances), are attracted by the waters charges and break down in the water to form a solution. If the substance can dissolve in the water they are known as hydrophilic and non-polar substances that won’t dissolve are known as hydrophobic. Biologically, the solvent properties of water are essential because this means that the water can transport

Brazil 2 Essay Research Paper On January

Brazil 2 Essay, Research Paper On January 12, 1999, over a billion dollars fled Brazil. Three yearss subsequently, the Central Bank attempted to convey about a limited devaluation of the Brazilian currency, the existent, but it failed to forestall a free autumn. Over the following two yearss, another $ 3 billion was pulled out, and by the terminal of the month, the existent had lost over 40 per centum of its value. The Central Bank president resigned, his replacement lasted a hebdomad, and as bad onslaughts continued, President Fernando Henrique Cardoso, in some despair, sought out one of international moneyman George Soros # 8217 ; s closest associates, Arminio Fraga, for the occupation. Fraga used to pull off a fund that took stakes on macroeconomic alterations, such as currency devaluations in topographic points like Brazil. It was, as the Brazilian imperativeness pointed out, a instance of seting the fox among the poulets. The mentality for 1999 is inexorable. Brazil is confronting a deep recession and a return of rising prices ; go oning volatility in the value of its currency ; a political cat battle over financial reform statute law in Congress ; acute emphasis in the relationship between the federal authorities and the provinces ; the hazard of defaults on province and federal authorities debt every bit good as in the private sector ; and astronomic and unsustainable involvement rates. For Brazil # 8217 ; s spouses in Mercosurthe common market that joins Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Brazil-its dip into recession and the quantum spring in the monetary value of their ain exports in the Brazilian market ( particularly for Argentina, which has locked its ain currency into a one-to-one relationship with the U.S. dollar by agencies of a currency board ) has put tremendous strains on the fledgling trade axis. Other Latin American authoritiess worried that investors would non distinguish between Brazil and the remainder of the part, decelerating down entree to the foreign capital needed to run into their ain adoption demands. The remainder of the universe grew fearful of # 8220 ; contagion. # 8221 ; For the International Monetary Fund ( IMF ) and the U.S. Treasury ( and finally the American taxpayer ) , which gambled in November 1998 that a immense $ 41.5 billion bundle of many-sided aid for Brazil would prolong the value of the existent, the realisation began to d rop in that, as with Russia, good money might good hold been dropped one time once more into yet another bottomless cavity. The Fall from Grace How did Brazil acquire into this sorry province? Who or what was to fault? The autumn from grace was dramatic, to state the least. Merely a twelvemonth earlier, this huge South American state of 167 million people, with the universe # 8217 ; s eighth largest economic system, had seemed steadfastly set on the way to a more comfortable, modern, and even just hereafter. It was led by a linguist, internationally minded leader of high intelligence who was hailed in European capitals and in Washington as the original of the new Latin American leader who would draw the part steadfastly into the new universe envisioned by the # 8220 ; Washington consensus # 8221 ; -a universe of free trade, unfastened markets, privatized province corporations, and booming democracies. Get downing in late 1994, Brazil had broken the old form of hyperinflation by the adept debut of a new currency-the real-which was tied to the U.S. dollar but allowed to fluctuate within a narrow set. The immediate positive effects were rapidly felt by the Brazilian population, particularly those who lived precariously on the border of destitution. For the first clip in decennaries hapless people had hard currency in their pockets that retained its value, and could non merely purchase more nutrient but besides consumer goods. The impudent side of this rose-colored image was heavy adoption on the international fiscal markets- # 8221 ; external nest eggs # 8221 ; as the economic experts put it with Orwellian bewilderment. Brazil was non entirely in this game, since it was an built-in portion of the new equation whereby the liquidness of planetary capital flows made such shortage financing extremely profitable. Brazil was, after all, now an # 8220 ; emerging market, # 8221 ; and a really large one at that. It was no longer # 8220 ; 3rd universe # 8221 ; or # 8220 ; underdeveloped # 8221 ; or even # 8220 ; developing, # 8221 ; much less a state with a history, establishments, and a immature democracy agitating off the bequest of two decennaries of autocratic regulation. To money directors in New York, London, and Frankfurt, and progressively Madrid and Lisbon, it was a topographic point where bad investing promised double-digit returns. Financing shortages of one type or another, and at all degrees of the domestic economic system, every bit good as prolonging the instability in external payments was what everyone did with the foreign capital thrown at them-Brazilians no less than Indonesians. But in the existent economic system itself, a strong Brazilian currency made Brazilian exports expensive and beguiled the Brazilian authorities into complacence in the one country in which it needed to acquire its house in order rapidly if the state was to prolong the new economic theoretical account over the long draw: its chronic inability to roll up sufficient grosss to cover outgos at the federal, province, and municipal degrees, and its every bit dramatic inability to incorporate outgos on forces, pensions, and politically divine porc. So long as the universe did non look excessively closely at the inside informations all was good, but when the Asiatic crisis hit, and Russia defaulted, the flow of easy money dried up nightlong. In the immediate wake of the Russian crisis, Brazil spoke tough words about financial reform, and for a clip Wall Street and the U.S. Treasury were tranquilized. But Brazil did non present. In fact, it did the antonym. President Cardoso had changed the fundamental law in 1997 so that he could seek an unprecedented 2nd term. And with elections in the offing, shortages escalated as politicians at all degrees made certainly that if a president could be reelected, so could they. Postponing the Crisis The U.S. Treasury-to which policy with regard to Latin America had been mostly ceded by the State Department-unsurprisingly saw the suave Cardoso, and non the gruff brotherhood leader Luiz Inacio Lula district attorney Silva, as its presidential campaigner of penchant in Brazil. And with the fiscal markets spooked by renewed frights about the wellness of the international fiscal system, it took the lead in crafting a mega-package of IMF support merely as the electoral run in Brazil reached its flood tide last October. The U.S. Congress was at the clip preoccupied with Iraq and the at hand impeachment of President Clinton, something an anon. U.S. Treasury functionary noted with some alleviation at the clip. But the crisis was postponed, non eliminated. In order to keep capital flight after the Russian fiasco in August 1998, Brazil had raised involvement rates to 40 per centum a twelvemonth. With shortages go oning, this served to balloon duties at all degrees, public and private. Legislation was already on the books to compel the province governors and city managers to populate within their agencies, but it had non been enforced. The colossal duties accumulated by the terminal of 1998 included involvement on public debt that was three times higher than entire direct foreign investing for that twelvemonth. Social security payments in 1998 amounted to more than twice the amount the authorities received from denationalizations. And the $ 25 billion that disappeared from its militias between August and October 1998 were three times what Brazil earned in exports over the same period. There is another spot of history the IMF seems to hold neglected to notice: Brazil # 8217 ; s record of conformity with IMF understandings is abysmal. Six Brazilian presidents have signed six IMF understandings since the late fiftiess. Not one of them was fulfilled. In the Mexican bailout of 1994, the IMF money was collateralized with crude oil grosss. The recent Brazilian bailout was collateralized with promises. This was non merely a # 8220 ; moral hazard. # 8221 ; It was obviously dense. The effects of the loss of cardinal secret agents on whom President Cardoso had relied for political clout and economic expertness besides became distressingly evident as the twelvemonth ended. The unexpected deceases over the old months of both his prime intimate and political influence peddler, Sergio Motta, the communications curate ( a key place in the authorities because of the megaprivatization of the telecommunications sector in 1998 ) , and of Luiz Eduardo Magalhaes, the authorities # 8217 ; s whip in the lower house of Congress, robbed Cardoso of his eyes and ears, every bit good as two really large sticks. Luiz Eduardo was the favourite boy of the powerful president of the Senate, Antonio Carlos Magalhaes, and progressively was seen as Cardoso # 8217 ; s heir apparent. ( The younger Magalhaes had the support of his ambitious, doting, and, if need be, ruthless father, a factor that would hold contained the challenges from other politicians looking toward the presidential e lection in 2002. ) The economic squad had blown apart as old friends in and outside the authorities were caught on tape in a bugging dirt trading inside chitchat about denationalization commands. In mid-January 1999, two hebdomads after Cardoso # 8217 ; s 2nd startup, the speculators returned with a retribution and the long-feared crisis erupted with ruinous effects. By the terminal of the month, Brazil had lost in capital flight more than it had gained in promised budget cuts. The first tranche of the IMF expense of $ 9.32 billion released in December equaled the sum of exposure to Brazil the large U.S. money centre Bankss had cut back since the program was announced, and Brazil, non surprisingly, was back at the trough seeking more money with a new set of promises. But with confusion reigning in Brasilia, this clip President Cardoso found really few who would accept his words at face value. Disquieted squads of IMF technocrats arrived to concentrate over the books and seek more budget cuts and higher involvement rates: the old expression that had helped intensify the crisis in the first topographic point. Cardoso put the challenge bluffly in private remarks to his advisers: # 8220 ; If this bundle of asceticism steps is non approved, the authorities, I, you, and the Congress will be in the rubbish bin within six months. # 8221 ; All Was Ashes During the tallness of the terror in January, President Cardoso, borrowing from Winston Churchill # 8217 ; s celebrated wartime exhortation, radius of the demand for # 8220 ; blood, perspiration, and tears. # 8221 ; Later, it became evident that Brazilian Bankss had made more net income in January than had the whole Brazilian banking system over the old twelvemonth. Elio Gaspari, the Brazilian political editorialist, pointed out that non merely had President Cardoso forgotten to add Sir Winston # 8217 ; s name to # 8220 ; difficult work, # 8221 ; but that he could besides hold evoked another Churchillianism to explicate what had happened that month in Brazil: neer before had so much been given by so many to so few in so short a clip. The Brazilian population # 8217 ; s choler that the existent program had collapsed is non hard to explicate. Brazil # 8217 ; s recent history is littered with failed economic plans and derelict currencies. Brazilians had hoped against all hope that this clip the existent was for existent. Even its name was now an insult. And Brazil had had more than its just portion of political letdowns as good. Tancredo Neves, Brazil # 8217 ; s first civilian president since the military putsch of 1964, indirectly elected by Congress in 1985, was a hardy figure of the resistance to the military government. But he died of bosom failure before he was inaugurated and was succeeded by his frailty president, Jose Sarney, a politician who had long supported the military government in Congress. The first straight elected president, Fernando Collor de Mello, who was elected in 1990 with high hopes of overhauling Brazil, was tripped up by the deep-rooted wonts of the little backward province he came from. He was impeached in a corruptness dirt and succeeded in 1992 by his frailty president, the fickle Itamar Franco. Fernando Henrique Cardoso, who was foremost elected to the presidential term in October 1994, had sought his 2nd term on the footing of the existent program # 8217 ; s success. Now all was ashes. Having been reelected to the presidential term merely three months before with over 50 per centum of the ballot, Cardoso saw his blessing evaluation in the polls bead below 22 per centum by the terminal of January 1999. Many perceivers have been speedy to impute the Brazilian crisis to # 8220 ; politics. # 8221 ; Certainly there is a big portion of political relations involved, as in any democracy. But to impute the failure to politics entirely handily avoids the more hard inquiries about the sustainability of the economic theoretical account itself. Nor did the obstructions Brazil faces in implementing reform Begin with the January moratorium on debt payments by the province of Minas Gerais declared by its governor, Itamar Franco, the former Brazilian president. It was as Franco # 8217 ; s finance curate that Cardoso had introduced the existent program in 1994. Franco had long been irritated that Cardoso got all the recognition, some of which he felt he deserved. The personal hostility was existent, but on taking office, Franco found that 80 per centum of his grosss were needed for province wages, 33.8 per centum for active and retired pensions, and 12.5 per centum on debt payments -for a sum of over 126 per centum of expected income. At least 13 other provinces were in similar passs, including several of the most of import 1s under resistance governors. Minas Gerais, Brazil # 8217 ; s third most of import province in footings of its economic system and one of the most of import in footings of its political relations, therefor e faced a crisis in its histories that many other major Brazilian provinces besides faced. The difference was that Itamar Franco put a really confrontational spin on his default because he resented President Cardoso and had been humiliated by him, and saw nil to derive by adjustment when confrontation would impel him back into the spotlight. Ironically, Franco was nominally a member of the alliance of parties that supposedly supported Cardoso # 8217 ; s disposal. More softly, Olivio Dutra, the governor of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil # 8217 ; s 2nd largest province in economic footings, who is a member of the resistance Worker # 8217 ; s Party, obtained an injunction from the Supreme Court leting him to put his debt to the federal authorities in escrow and avoid being declared # 8220 ; in arrears, # 8221 ; which would trip the impounding of federal transportations to his province. Therefore, when all the governors except Franco met with Cardoso at the terminal of February, the president was obliged to acknowledge that their state of affairs was unstable and needed federal support. Federal-state tensenesss were in fact bound to break out in early 1999, given the chronic status of province authorities fundss. But this is besides an old narrative that resurrects a potentially unsafe struggle. The flux between cardinal and regional power has marked Brazilian history since the early 19th century, and it is a critical constituent of the current crisis. Brazilian cardinal authoritiess have frequently been required to pacify the formidable involvements of the parts, and policymaking in Brazil, even at the best of times, is at its nucleus a complicated dialogue over the distribution of resources between the centre and the powerful province foremans. Brazil is a complex state, larger than the immediate United States, with strong regional power centres, an entrenched bureaucratism, and legal and administrative systems with a formidable tradition of corporative self-defense. Party association has been less of import at the national degree than the entree to the power and resources that a congressional or senatorial place brings with it. Brazilian political parties lack subject and trueness, and the particular involvement groups-whether they be bankers, rural landholders, pensionaries, evangelicals, or civil servants-tend to back up single senators and congresswomans instead than parties, which are decrepit organized at the national degree and to a great extent dependent on backing at the province degree. This state of affairs is farther aggravated by the immense dimensions of electoral territories -covering full states-which makes runs really expensive, even by U.S. criterions. By the late eightiess, for case, successful congressional campaigners in Sao Paulo were passing on mean $ 600,000 per place. In that same period in the United States, successful congressional campaigners were passing $ 393,000. Given this world, the popularity of Brazil’s president is critical to his ability to obtain consequences in Congress. An unpopular president, or a feeble duck president, rapidly loses authorization. President Cardoso is both a feeble duck and profoundly unpopular. Not a healthy state of affairs in a clip of crisis. The Transition Game In the past decennary and a half, Brazil moved off from one of Latin America # 8217 ; s longest periods of military regulation ; but its passage from military to civilian regulation came approximately through a procedure of dialogue instead than rupture. Many of the civilian politicians who cooperated with the armed forces during their 21 old ages of regulation moved seamlessly into the more pluralistic system established after 1985 and were cardinal participants in the authorship of Brazil # 8217 ; s 1988 Constitution. While the 1988 Constitution enshrined many societal and political rights, it besides retained, at the insisting of the military and powerful regional oligarchs who had benefited from military regulation, a cardinal instability in which the more traditional, more rural provinces of the North and nor-east were overrepresented to the hurt of the more developed industrialised provinces of the South and sou-east, where the chief political resistance to the military autho ritiess had ever existed. The 1988 Constitution besides provided protections to administrative officials and the organized or corporative sectors of society, doing administrative reform hard and supplying extraordinary benefits to those entrenched within the authorities setup in a state where 1000000s still lived in low poorness and the distribution of income was among the worst in the universe. The postmilitary fundamental law became a Christmas tree of entitlements. It besides mandated the distribution of revenue enhancement grosss off from the centre to the provinces. The provinces, because they could utilize their deputations in Congress to barricade efforts to command extra outgos and compel the federal authorities to absorb the costs of turn overing over their debts, faced few obstructions to a monolithic escalation of outgos with small respect for their ability to cover these outgos from their ain resources. The formidable alterations Brazil was sing with urbanisation, greater political engagement, and wider entree to instruction and to the media and engineering were at the same time giving a voice to progressively larger sectors of the Brazilian population. And as new voices emerged in the more pluralistic environment of the mid1980s and 1990s, the political game became even more complicated and more ideological, with freshly independent brotherhoods, spiritual groups, autochthonal motions, adult females # 8217 ; s organisations, environmental militants, a powerful and more critical imperativeness, and a formidable motion of landless rural workers all stimulating civil society and disputing the old oligarchic manner of determination devising and political representation. Therefore, the crisis that hit at the beginning of 1999 resulted from the convergence of three developments: the load of the province setup and its rigidnesss ; the jussive moods of the political calendar ; and a unsafe exposure to external conditions. The 1988 Fundamental law, because it had incorporated such a high grade of specificity on societal every bit good as political rights, made policy inquiries, which in other political systems could be resolved by statute law, weighty affairs of constitutional amendment, thereby puting really high barriers to governmental reform by necessitating a cumbrous procedure of constitutional alteration. This involved achieving two back-to-back 60 per centum ballots in each house of Congress, virtually guaranting holds in the passage of any steps for which seasonableness was indispensable, and doing any such steps highly dearly-won for the authorities in footings of the Equus caballus trading needed to roll up sufficient ballots to go through the amendments. The unmanageable procedure led necessarily to the usage of # 8220 ; probationary steps, # 8221 ; mechanisms retained in the 1988 Constitution # 8217 ; s Article 62 at the insisting of the military and its Alliess during the passage from autocratic regulation. Under this article, the president could enforce steps with the force of jurisprudence for a 30-day period. The existent program itself was implemented by these agencies. In theory, probationary steps could be rejected if Congress did non go through enabling statute law within 30 yearss. In pattern, presidents merely reissued them. The stoping in 1995 of # 8220 ; indexation, # 8221 ; by which wages had been adjusted at the terminal of each month to the rising prices index of the old month and which contributed mightily to Brazil # 8217 ; s hyperinflation, was besides achieved by agencies of a # 8220 ; probationary step # 8221 ; reissued 47 times. In his first three old ages in office, in fact, President Cardoso issued 1,800 probationary steps, including 1,698 reissued edicts. Merely 90 were transformed into jurisprudence. This made Congress progressively determined to deprive the president of such powers in any revising of the fundamental law itself. This means that the tradeoff for simplifying the fundamental law, which all agree is indispensable to do the system map more expeditiously, will be necessarily marked by attempts to deprive the Brazi lian president of the very constitutional mechanisms that had made possible any forward advancement at all over the past decennary. The intractableness of societal security reform encapsulates the jobs of outgos and particular involvement authorizations. To give but two sensitive and politically explosive illustrations: The military contributes R $ 100 million to societal security yearly, while military benefits cost R $ 7.2 billion. In the metropolis of Sao Paulo, pensions absorb two-fifths of the public safety budget. The military constabulary of the metropolis entirely have 35,000 pensionaries, one for every two work forces on active responsibility. With 53 functioning colonels, the metropolis supports 100 retired colonels roll uping pensions. Chronic Insecurity and Public Order But to cut outgos such as this, in a state of affairs where most Brazilians already face chronic insecurity, can be really unsafe to public order. In late 1997, sometimes violent constabulary work stoppages erupted in several Brazilian provinces, including in Alagoas, where the constabulary had been unpaid for over seven months by the belly-up local disposal. The mean authorities pension is eight times higher than private-sector pensions. And those received by sitting congresswomans are 30 times higher on norm than what the mean pensionary receives. Pensioners, in fact, organize the largest anteroom in Congress. Therefore, the power to paralyse the disposal of authorities prevarications to the full in the custodies of those who most benefit from this state of affairs and have the most to lose by its reform. Federal civil retainers, who contribute R $ 3.3 billion yearly, be the system R $ 12.8 billion a twelvemonth. The state of affairs at the province degree is small better. The provinces spend on norm 30 per centum of their paysheets on inactive and retired workers and lasting partners. Not surprisingly, the cutbacks in pension payments promised to the IMF-a mere R $ 3 billion in 1999-are derisory in face of the degree of debt and unfunded duties in the societal security system. As if these rigidnesss were non plenty, the timetable of political relations besides made reform surety to the electoral calendar. President Cardoso had succeeded in altering the fundamental law so that he could run for a 2nd back-to-back term-a traditi on even the military swayers had neer attempted to alterbut this mortgaged reform to political aspiration. Cardoso # 8217 ; s statement was that reform could expect the 2nd authorization when it would be his primary aim. The job was that any hold in steming the financial hemorrhaging of the province became highly expensive once the demand to retain # 8220 ; investor assurance # 8221 ; became paramount. This required that Brazil pay astronomical involvement rates to keep capital flight in the self-contradictory belief that this would prolong the strong belief among aliens that it retained the ability to serve its debts, something the inordinate involvement rates made progressively improbable. This critical factor was masked non merely in the IMF plan itself but besides in the coverage on the concern pages, which spoke about switching primary shortages into excesss without quantifying what this entailed or ciphering what the involvement on these authorities adoptions involved. But involvement, more than per centums, was a key to the intensifying crisis. The load of debt rapidly attained unsustainable degrees. Yet because of the planetary crisis of liquidness and the hazards it posed, the fiction that all was good in Brazil needed to be sustained, and it was-at least until the planetary system could be inoculated against the possible impact of a Brazilian clang and President Cardoso was safely reelected. Time magazine put Alan Greenspan, Robert Rubin, and Lawrence Summers on its January 27, 1999 screen, proclaiming these # 8220 ; Three Marketeers # 8221 ; as the work forces who # 8220 ; had saved the world. # 8221 ; Possibly the editors meant Wall Street. Surely the U.S. edition of Time contained non a word of describing from most of the universe South and E of Manhattan, where that message of rescue might hold seemed hollow at best. The Fiction Is Over What are the hazards now that the fiction is over? The section of the population that is most threatened by a return of rising prices and recession are the 19 million people who during the mid-1990s, deriving from the stableness brought approximately by the existent program, had moved into the emerging lower in-between category. As electors, many of these people provided solid support for President Cardoso # 8217 ; s reelection. But they excessively had became hooked on recognition, much of it linked in the little print to the dollar. They are the most vulnerable to the new state of affairs, and the most volatile. An acute battle over land and belongings has been developing on the rural frontiers for over a decennary. Here, the landless rural workers motion comprises the most organized and radicalized sections of the Brazilian population. Rural workers have long claimed that Cardoso # 8217 ; s policies were unsustainable. Industrial workers have been under force per unit area since 1995, the inundation of imports and the consolidation of the fabrication sector holding forced many out of stable employment into the informal sector. The brotherhoods, fearful of arousing more occupation losingss in the face of worsening chances have preferred dialogue over confrontation, but this excessively could alter. Brazil is besides a state where over a million people seek to come in the work force each year-they will hold minimum chances in the foreseeable future-a serious long-run job for an economic system that needs rapid growing if it is to both absorb workers and vie in an progressively competitory universe market. On all these counts, Brazil will fall behind in the new planetary economic system, non leap frontward as many had hoped. At the terminal of 1998, unemployment in greater Sao Paulo stood at an all-time high of 18.3 per centum. It can merely acquire worse in the face of a contraction of the economic system and the intensifying recession. Bankruptcies and defaults will be ineluctable in both the populace and private sectors. It is hard to see where the federal authorities in peculiar can cut farther, since its ability to utilize financial agencies is limited by political and societal restraints, and its pecuniary policy is hostage to the domestic debt load. The secondary market in province and municipal securities, valued at some R $ 9 billion, came to a practical arrest in February, as an increasing figure of authoritiess in all countries of Brazil failed to pay their duties on adulthood. The decrease of the stock of dollars in the commercial bank caissons threatens Brazilian importers and companies with abroad committednesss, which are estimated to be $ 13.5 billion for the first one-fourth of 1999 alone. The current history shortage reached about $ 35 billion for 1998 despite the $ 9.32 billion initial payment from the IMF bundle. Brazil # 8217 ; s external funding demands in 1999 are estimated to be in the part of $ 52 billion. With the 2nd tranche of $ 9 billion due in March 1999, this will intend that about 44 per centum of the IMF bundle has already been committed. The state # 8217 ; s entire foreign debt interim stands at over $ 230 billion, and its domestic public debt, as of this authorship, in March 1999, exceeds R $ 500 billionroughly equal to the entire buying power of the 28 million households that make up the Brazilian center and lower center classesand is lifting rapidly due to the expensive involvement that must be paid. Almost 20 per centum of this debt is dollar linked, and 70 per centum must pay nightlong rates. This barbarous rhythm means that a one per centum point rise in the involvement rate-and the IMF wanted the involvement rates to lift to 70 percent-forces the authorities to presume an excess R $ 1-2 billion in debt service costs. It is non hard to see the clefts already seeable at the province degree rapidly turning into canons. If # 8220 ; fume and mirrors # 8221 ; had enveloped the IMF bundle in the first topographic point, the same applies two-fold to its failure. As an functionary of the Group of Seven industrialized economic systems told Stephen Fidler of the Financial Times in October 1998, # 8220 ; There is one thing worse than failure and that # 8217 ; s failure that takes a batch of your money and credibleness with it. # 8221 ; So it was barely surprising that the IMF declared rapidly in January 1999, after the value of the existent had collapsed, that the # 8220 ; float # 8221 ; of the existent was the best policy for Brazil, even though the # 8220 ; care of the current exchange rate government # 8221 ; had been a cardinal board of its bailout bundle announced the old November. Or that the R $ 28 billion Brazil finally cut from outgos under force per unit area of the currency crisis was hailed in Washington as grounds of conformity with IMF directives, despite the fact that these figures had been predicated on # 8220 ; care # 8221 ; of the existent # 8217 ; s value. But one time once more, no 1 wanted to look excessively closely in the involvements of restoring # 8220 ; assurance, # 8221 ; much less talk about it. The world was that the old figures were shot. U.S. Treasury secretary Robert Rubin had said of the bailout bundle in November, # 8220 ; This should make it. # 8221 ; It had non. George Soros told the one-year assemblage of worthies at the World Economic Forum in Davos, Switzerland, in February 1999 that what Brazil needed from the international fiscal community was a # 8220 ; wall of money # 8221 ; -in add-on, presumptively to the $ 41.5 billion already committed by the IMFled bundle. On March 8, in Washington the IMF announced yet another memoranda of understanding with the Brazilian authorities. Cardoso, it said, promised to cut down Brazil # 8217 ; s public debt ratio to GDP ; addition excesss ; increase monetary values of domestic energy ; cut down federal outgos ; # 8220 ; retrench # 8221 ; with regard to province employees ; privatise more province companies and province Bankss ; promote the # 8220 ; voluntary committednesss of foreign Bankss # 8221 ; ; and publish more bonds. On the same twenty-four hours in Rio de Janeiro, Cardoso, speech production at the Superior War College, was more equivocal, particularly about the denationalization of Petrobras, the province crude oil company, and other cardinal province endeavors. # 8220 ; If this is utile to excite the markets, so be it. But it does no good for Brazil to fantasy about paths that are non needed, # 8221 ; he told the generals whose societal security parts he had merely promised the IMF he would increase. Possibly he assumed the generals did non read English-or Wall Street bargainers Portuguese-a unsafe given in the age of the cyberspace. But looking at Brazil # 8217 ; s black chances, Soros knows of what he speaks. With involvement rates at 45 per centum, rising prices in the month of February making 7.65 per centum, and 2 million unemployed between the ages of 15 and 24 in Greater Sao Paulo, his former plus director, Arminio Fraga, now Brazil # 8217 ; s Central Bank president, to whom the state # 8217 ; s economic policy has been mostly ceded, will hold his custodies full. So excessively will the # 8220 ; Three Marketeers # 8221 ; if Brazil fails to convert flighty investors that it is back on path, if it is forced to fall back to capital controls, or even defaults, as the twelvemonth progresses, and Western taxpayers finally wake up to the manner their revenue enhancements have been gambled on a mission impossible.